The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [21] They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. [103][53] In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. ); to reach out, (only C. reflexes imply 2nd form with reconstructed *a), to remove (from surface), pull, tear, or scrape off, to grumble, sigh, make sounds of complaint, (Eg., Sem. Therefore the root is considered ktb. When looking for roots it is important to remember that early Semitic only had consonants and vowels had to be inferred from the context (Atlas, p.78-79). Afroasiatic(Afro-Asiatic), also known as Afrasianand in older sources as Hamito-Semitic(Chamito-Semitic)[3]or Semito-Hamitic,[4]is a large language familyof about 300 languages. The Proto-Afrasian Phonological System Unlike the comparative-historical study of the Indo-European languagefamily, which has a long history, the comparative-historical study of the Afrasian language familyis still not far advanced, though enormous progress has been made in recent years. Tivoid p-Fula-Sereer [99] In all AA languages, consonants can be bilabial, alveolar, velar, and glottal, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. p-Central Khoisan Three dialects emerged (Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic) from the main one and this left 'Boreafrasian,' the source of Berber, Egyptian and Semitic (Dalby ,p. 6). Root Structure Patterning in Proto . p-Potou-Akanic p-Ogoni p-Tuu innovation: move > move toward), (probably demon., root #767+ *l n./adj. [31], A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. 6), (Eg., Sem., Cush. If so, semantics are unclear), (pl. [40] Tom Gldemann, however, argues that less time may have been required than is commonly assumed, as it is possible for a language to rapidly restructure due to language contact, as happened in the Chadic branch and probably also in Omotic. fort. This page was last edited on 28 August 2022, at 11:13. Proto-Chadic reconstruction is in its infancy, Proto-Cushitic is even less developed, and according to Glottolog it's not demonstrable that Omotic languages are even related to each other, let alone as part of Afro-Asiatic. common genetic origin of Proto-Indo-European and Proto-Afroasiatic differ considerably from the assumptions made in other works on . [6], Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have at least five and as many as eight separate branches, with the five universally agreed upon branches consisting of the Berber (also called "Libyco-Berber"), Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic,[130][166] where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. Africa is divided by geographical features, including the Sahara desert and the Ethiopian mountains. Well-known Afroasiatic languages include Arabic, Ancient Egyptian, Somali, Tuareg, and Hausa. p-Guang p-Central Togo 1995. Afroasiatic. In this interpretation, a contrast existed between. [106] The most widespread constraint is against two different labial consonants (other than w) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. innovation: 'grow' > 'live,' whence Eg. [17][18] Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label "Hamito-Semitic" is at this point simply convention and no more implies an opposition between Semitic and "Hamitic" languages than "Indo-European" implies a "European" and an Indic branch. The Proto-Afroasiatic Vowel System" In The Nostratic Macrofamily: A Study in Distant Linguistic Relationship, 105-108. < v. in #918 by V > VV; occurrence of PSC *ee (or *e?) Proto-Afroasiatic phonology has been the subject of several proposals for reconstruction that are not only different from each other, but also very divergent (cf. It is traditionally understood to be an adjective based on the name of Abraham's ancestor, Eber ("Ever" in Hebrew), mentioned in Genesis 10:21. [31] Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. PROTO-AFROASIATIC PHONOLOGICAL SYSTEM One of the most significant characteristics of Afroasiatic consonantism is the system of triads found in the stops and affri- cates -- each series (except the lateralized affricates) contains three members: a voiceless (aspirated) member, a voiced member, and a glottalized (that is, ejective) member. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. [54] The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for Carl Meinhof's highly influential classification of African languages in his book Die Sprache der Hamiten (1912). p-Agaw Nilo-Saharan ), (Eg., Sem. [94], Several Afroasiatic languages have large numbers of consonants, and it is likely that Proto-Afroasiatic did as well:[95] Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova reconstruct 32 consonant phonemes,[96] while Christopher Ehret reconstructs 42. [5] It includes languages spoken predominantly in West Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africaand parts of the Sahel. . [104] Several Omotic languages have "sibilant harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) Gule innovation: 'send' > 'direct,' hence 'command, rule'), (Agaw *a allows PAA vowel reconstructions *a, *aa, *o, or *e), (Sem., Eg. tr. Tiefo p-Talodi p-Ukaan p-Yoruboid suff. You guys might disagree with the results form the Shum Laka paper but don't distort their own interpretations of their findings. [92] Diakonoff argues that Proto-Afroasiatic syllables disallowed consonant clusters or vowels at the end of a syllable. See . [90], Syllable weight plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word. Afroasiatic languages have over 500 million native speakers, which is the fourth-largest number of native speakers of any language family (after Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan, and NigerCongo). Afro-Asiatic is a large language family with great diversity. [151] Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gbor Takcs, the latter of whom argues for a PAA *ma- that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages. Defaka [54][73][9] The reluctance of some scholars to recognize Chadic as a member of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. [141] However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. The languages that evolved from Proto-Arabic have around 313 million native speakers, concentrated primarily in the Middle East and North Africa.[5]. [16] Several issues with the label "Hamito-Semitic" have led to its decline in use by later scholars. [89] In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal or fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from beginning with a vowel. Olukumi This is in part due to Boroafrasian speakers breaking into groups such as Berber and Egyptian in North Africa and Semitic dialects in the Arabian Peninsula. Bendi Dictionary of Languages. [54] These five or six branches remain the academic consensus on the family. [50], Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages, including Hebrew, as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. BLACK ATHENA The Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization - V - $57.73. [108] Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or denominal verbs, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. Retard. envisaged a tome citing several hundred reconstructed roots; he did manage, however, to publish over a hundred (53 proto-roots were published, for example, in Hodge 1981). [164] Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic), also known as Hamito-Semitic,or Semito-Hamitic, and sometimes also as Afrasian, are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in the geographic subregions of Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara/Sahel. p-Songhay The Atlas of Languages. [45] Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the Nilotic languages; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. [76] It may have originally mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (verbal extensions) were then added and lexicalized. [85][86] Scholar Jared Diamond and archaeologist Peter Bellwood have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic macrofamilies (such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley. [130], The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches - but not all languages - of the Afroasiatic family. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. Nara >>14700322 >Proto-Semitic language contact with PIE implies the Semitic languages themselves come from J Caucasians. n. pref. Mimi-N Proto-Afro-Asiatic: *abaw/y- Meaning: a k. of plant Semitic: *abVw- 'reed, papyrus' Egyptian: wb 'root', cf. innovation: to spoil > to sour), (Sem., Eg. Omotic, Cushitic, and Chadic are also spoken north of the Sahara so it must be assumed that the speakers of these "dialects" migrated north likewise, though perhaps separately from the Boreafrasian speakers (Dalby, p.6). innovation: shift to outflow of water, not from body; root *-sa- seen in #540 + *t dur. PSom-III. p-Khoe [4] The most widely spoken modern Afroasiatic language or dialect continuum by far is Arabic, a de facto group of distinct language varieties within the Semitic branch. In Arabic, ti-ktib means she writes and katab-it means she wrote. Proto-Afroasiatic) was spoken, most agree that it was located within a region of Northeast Africa. Kanuri [100], All or most branches of AA have a contrast between voiceless, voiced, and "emphatic" consonants. [169] As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic. TV. [20], There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Consider also the debate over the origins of the Afroasiastic or Afrasan languages and cultures, a linguistic group with a wide geographical distribution covering the Middle East and Northern. [166] There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. infix [also tonal shift as found in Chadic cases]), (this root is included because #871 following derives from it), (sing. velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals; This page was last edited on 4 March 2023, at 01:29. > *itsan-; Omotic innovation: stem + *m n. p-Nubian E-V13. innovation: *-VC- v. stems > *-CV-), (Eg., Sem. p-Daju all catalog, articles, website, & more in one search catalog books, media & more in the Stanford Libraries' collections articles+ journal articles & other e-resources [14], The term Semitic had already been coined in 1781 by August Ludwig von Schlzer, following an earlier suggestion by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in 1710. p-Nilo-Saharan This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). [154] In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, and some Chadic languages, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given verb are dependent on the vocalic template. S. SC Sem. [149], A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns. [74], There is no consensus on when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The prefixes ti and it mean she. [139], Nouns cases are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic. Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary. [131] This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. New York: Facts on File, Inc., 1996. BLACK ATHENA: THE Afroasiatic Roots of Classical Civilization (The Fabrication, - $16.27. Afro-Asiatic has been hypothesized to be related to many other language families. [81] Christopher Ehret, O. Y. Keita, and Paul Newman also argue that archaeology does not indicate a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. Forms that do not follow the pattern are in parentheses. innovation: narrowing of meaning to beating time to music), (Eg., Sem. [44], The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. A main characteristic of Afro-Asiatic languages is the use of vowel changes in word formation. Each aspect of these reconstructions is substantiated in detail in an extensive etymological vocabulary of more than 1000 roots. ), to get up to leave, start out, come or go forth, (Eg., Sem. It's impossible to tell exactly how old Proto-Afroasiatic is, or where it was spoken, but there are a few ideas. In the series University of California Publications in Linguistics 126. p-Atlantic-Congo NE Sudanic [183][184] In the Chadic family alone, there are two different roots for "two,"[185] and Berber and Semitic likewise have two different branch-internal roots for "two". [140] Some languages in AA have a marked nominative alignment, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. The Sumerian and Etruscan languages, usually regarded as language isolates, are thought by some to be Nostratic languages as well. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is proposed to have been spoken 18,000 years ago near the Horn of Africa (eastern Africa). Some features observed in most or all Afroasiatic languages include: It remains unclear what word order Proto-Afroasiatic had. "[81] The African languages of Afroasiatic are not more closely related to each other than they are to Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in an Asian AA homeland while all other branches had spread from there. [80] Most scholars place the homeland of Afroasiatic near the center of its current distribution,[8] "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa. The "t-stem" may be reflected in some forms in Hausa; however may also derive from a language internal development and has no cognates elsewhere in Chadic. [15] The association between Africans and the Biblical Ham dates back to at least Isidore of Seville (6th century CE), and earlier 19th-century scholars had vaguely spoken of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages. Tula-Waja p-Ijaw El proto-afroasitico , a veces denominado proto-afrasiano , es el proto-lenguaje reconstruido del que descienden todas las lenguas afroasiticas modernas . [140] A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to marked by -u or -i, and the accusative to be marked by -a. p-Nupoid Afro-Asiatic is divided into six branches: Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic, Chadic and Omotic. Proto-Afro-Asiatic is of great antiquity; experts tend to place it in the Mesolithic Period at about 15,000-10,000 bce. Cognate Dictionary Studies in Baltic and Indo-European Linguistics The Roots of Hinduism Latin - nus, -na, -nus and -neus Tracing the Indo-Europeans Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo- . ; PC variant *damn-), (Ch., Eg., Sem. [10][11], Friedrich Mller introduced the name "Hamito-Semitic" to describe the family in his Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft, published in 1876. [19] Additionally, a majority of specialists consider the Omotic languages to constitute a sixth branch. In the above model, Taforalt draws about half of their ancestry (you can call this ANA) from a population that also (likely through a sister population) contributes the . Adapted from Ruhlen 1987. >>14700332 While there is no consensus among historical linguists concerning the original homeland of the Afroasiatic family or the period when the parent language (i.e. [51] The classification within West Semitic remains contested. The results, while confirming some previous views on proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian), revise or overturn many others, and add much that is new. [105], Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. p-Maban [184] Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. Proto-Cushitic Roots (Additional to those presented in Ehret 1987) Appendix 3. Bijogo The HmongMien languages also known as MiaoYao and rarely as Yangtzean1 are a highly tonal language family of southern China and northern Southeast [173] While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments,[130] as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. 2.12. p-Chadic innovation: specialization of meaning to plant growth), (Berber, e.g., Shilh agafay 'cloud,' implies a 2nd root shape *-gaap-), to impel, make move (by pushing, pulling), (root #311+old Afroasiatic pl. !Kung, Bangime FOR SALE! [171][172] In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see Pronouns); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician Judah ibn Quraysh, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. of #724 by adding *-(a)C- where C = preceding stem-final C, is implied in Eg. [147][148] Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state," the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions. These classifications of language sub-sets vary according to different texts. It rigorously applies, throughout, the established canon and techniques of the historical-comparative method. The Afroasiatic languages (or Afro-Asiatic ), also known as Hamito-Semitic, [3] or Semito-Hamitic, [4] and sometimes also as Afrasian or Erythraean, [5] are a language family of about 300 languages that are spoken predominantly in Western Asia, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and parts of the Sahara / Sahel. The Berber and Semitic branches share certain grammatical features (e.g. infix), fruit, seeds, foliage, plant growth in general, (Ch., Sem. Temein Item Weight : 11.2 ounces Dimensions : 5.75 x 0.75 x 9 inches Best Sellers Rank: #1,696,866 in Books ( See Top 100 in Books) #2,811 in Comparative Religion (Books) Customer Reviews: 3 ratings Videos Help others learn more about this product by uploading a video! [98] AA languages tend to have pharyngeal fricative consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing and . Bomhard postulates that from Proto-Afroasiatic (henceforth PAA), Chadic was the first to break off. Lafofa, p-Afroasiatic Since there is written data available from this region, it is easier to reconstruct ancient roots and find common characteristics (ELL, p.51). [175] In Egyptian, it takes the forms -j, whereas in Semitic it takes the form -i(y);[138] it thus has the same form in both language families. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. *w: deverbative complement and result suffix: 2. innovation: narrowing of application of v. to angry calling out), (Sem., Cush, innovation: > n. 'covering' > 'rind, bark'), (root #447+ * iter. [183], Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of borrowing. ; *u < *i /#-p_C-#? Berlin, New York: De Gruyter Mouton, 2011. . [121], As part of these templates, the alternation (apophony) between high vowels (e.g. Gumuz In An Encyclopedia of Language, Omotic is listed as a sub-set of Cushitic, and Andrew Dalby writes the Egyptian division as "Egyptian-Coptic," even though Coptic is considered to be a sub-set of Egyptian. Due to isolation, Icelandic has changed the least and is most similar to Old Norse, and therefore probably also to Proto-Germanic. [109] Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. The Semitic line of Afro-Asiatic has the most language sub-sets. As the Afroasiatic languages tend to be the tongues with the longest and oldest historical record, there are not many that can beat the Proto-Afroasiatic. [34] The Cushitic family is traditionally spit into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern Cushitic. [34], The Egyptian branch consists of a single language, Ancient Egyptian, which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. Under East Semitic rose Akkadian and Babylonian. Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here. One hypothesis places it in the Levant, as the language of the Natufian hunter-gatherers who were the first to adopt a farming lifestyle more than 10,000 years ago. p-Maji Mao xvii + 557. For example, the Hamitic component inaccurately suggests the existence of a monophyletic "Hamitic" branch alongside Semitic. suff. WCh WOT rather than the subject and object. ; *m > /n/ ([])/_*x), (Sem., Eg. North Germanic includes Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Norwegian. [40] The latest possible date for the existence of Proto-Afroasiatic is c. 4000 BCE, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are first attested; however, the languages must have diverged and evolved for some time before this. [103][101] The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA;[133] in addition to deriving feminine nouns in many branches, it also functions as a diminutive, pejorative, and/or singulative marker in some languages. Aunque las estimaciones varan ampliamente, los eruditos creen que se hablaba como un solo idioma hace entre 12.000 y 18.000 aos (12 a 18 kya ), es decir, entre 16.000 y 10.000 a . There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. In addition to the languages spoken today, Afroasiatic includes many ancient languages, such as Egyptian, which forms a distinct branch of the family; and within the Semitic family, Akkadian, Hebrew, Phoenician, other Canaanite languages, Amorite, Ugaritic and Aramaic. ; semantics: flow out bit-by-bit), *-man-/*-mun-, *-ma-/*-mu-, *-ma-/*-mu-, (root #572 + *w inchoat. [168] Prefixes of - (glottal stop) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. This work provides the first truly comprehensive and systematic reconstruction of proto-Afroasiatic (proto-Afrasian). The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. [109] Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant dissimilation or assimilation.[110][111]. Beboid The proto-language of each Afroasiatic branch developed its own distinct vocabulary of food production, further supporting the view that herding and cultivation emerged separately in each branch after the proto-Afroasiatic period ( 7, 8 ). C. [79], An African origin has broad scholarly support,[75] and is favored by most linguists on the basis of the linguistic data. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6-9. p-North Bauchi Because i notice in some cases, they seem to have vowels shifting around quite a bit, akin to the trilateral root systems of the semitic languages. [54] However, Christopher Ehret (1979), Harold Fleming (1981), and Joseph Greenberg (1981) all agree that the Omotic branch split from the rest first. p-Central Chadic [27] The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE. p-Kuliak (Ik) p-Bantu (Swadesh list) Fifteen are glossed as names of plants or loose categories of plants.
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